Appendix E: Marine Mammals

E.1 Introduction

This chapter leverages ongoing data collection and research initiatives related to offshore wind and marine mammals funded by a variety of partners (states, federal agencies, industry). For an always up-to-date list of active projects, visit the Offshore Wind & Wildlife Research Database.

Given this ongoing work, the Marine Mammal Subcommittee is making recommendations for additional research that is both aligned with existing efforts and that fills important gaps.

E.3 Recommendations: Marine mammals and offshore wind in the U.S. Atlantic Ocean

This chapter builds on the research topics and questions related to marine mammals and offshore wind proposed by several groups over the last decade that should be addressed by a regional collaborative (Farmer et al., 2023; Kershaw et al., 2023; Kraus et al., 2019; NJ RMI, 2021; Regional Synthesis Workgroup of the Environmental Technical Working Group, 2022; Southall et al., 2021). The RWSC Marine Mammal Subcommittee considered these previous bodies of work in developing the following list. In doing so, they have also highlighted the following concepts:

  • Future work will be aligned and coordinated with research needs and actions described in the BOEM and NOAA Fisheries North Atlantic Right Whale and Offshore Wind Strategy (BOEM & NOAA Fisheries, 2024).

  • Climate change: Disentangling the impacts to marine mammals from climate change from any potential effects from offshore wind development will be a major challenge. For example, any attempt to establish a “baseline” representative of the past several decades must acknowledge that the environment changed rapidly over that time and continues to change rapidly. In addition, climate change increases the uncertainty surrounding marine mammal behavior, distribution and demography, which can abruptly and unexpectedly increases the risks associated with offshore wind development if marine mammals begin to use new areas and habitats or existing habitat more frequently or during different times of year.

  • A key contribution of the RWSC Science Plan is the ability to look across all the various data collection activities and identify opportunities for synthesis.

  • Assigning causality to observed changes may not be possible in all studies.

E.3.1 Data Collection

Several entities are requiring, funding, and/or advocating for marine mammal research and data collection activities with respect to offshore wind. The Subcommittee strongly recommends that funders ensure that all types of data are collected using consistent methods across locations and projects such that data can be used in other analyses and research, including broad scale analyses of potential impacts across many projects. Individuals and entities should consult with the Marine Mammal Subcommittee prior to collecting marine mammal data with respect to offshore wind to ensure that any new data collection does not duplicate existing efforts and is consistent with the tools and approaches already in use. Any individual or entity may join public Marine Mammal Subcommittee meetings by obtaining meeting links on the RWSC website.

A combination of methods (visual, acoustic, tagging) is recommended to provide the most complete information and context to marine mammal observations, given the strengths and limitations of each method alone. For example, pairing passive acoustics with visual observations can provide more information about marine mammal behavior at the time vocalizations are recorded.

  • Visual observations (ship-based, aerial, conventional imagery) are most robust during daylight hours and weather conditions with good visibility. However, these methods only capture marine mammals at or near the surface.

  • Thermal and infrared imagery increases the amount of time each day that marine mammals can be detected visually. Some of the technologies associated with imagery are being tested by offshore wind developers and other experts.

  • Passive acoustics (real-time and archival) can be used to detect marine mammals during all hours of the day, all year long, and during most conditions (high levels of ambient noise could impact detection). However, acoustics tools only detect whales that are vocalizing.

  • Tagging methods are typically applied to understand fine-scale movement and behavior of individuals. Tags may be difficult to deploy but can provide useful information about an animal’s responses to oceanographic conditions or known stressors that are being measured simultaneously.

BOEM requires various types of marine mammal data collection and monitoring as part of the approval process for each offshore wind project’s Construction and Operations Plans (COPs). These activities may include:

  • Visual and passive acoustic monitoring of vessel transit corridors to/from the project site

  • Passive acoustic monitoring and visual surveys before and during activities such as pile driving and geophysical surveys

  • Long-term/archival passive acoustic monitoring to record ambient noise and marine mammal species before, during, and for a specified period of time after construction

NOAA, BOEM, and several states are also funding the deployment of passive acoustic monitoring sensors in the RWSC study area. Deployment locations and data management are being coordinated through the RWSC Marine Mammal Subcommittee (visit https://rwsc.org/pam for the latest information). The recently completed Power analysis for optimal design of a passive acoustic monitoring network for US east coast offshore wind (Chudzinska and Thomas, 2023) highlighted several data gaps that if filled, would improve the ability to assess the statistical power of the regional passive acoustic monitoring network:

  • Improve estimates of acoustic detection rates and cue rates of baleen whales during non-construction conditions.

  • Improve dose-response curves by obtaining in-situ behavioral data at offshore wind construction sites on baleen whale responses to pile driving noise. This would require collecting a range of data types including PAM and visual observations (aerial or ship-based).

  • Expand passive acoustic monitoring outside of wind energy areas, especially along the shelf break, including using gliders and real-time systems.

Additional recommendations for the implementation of a regional scale passive acoustic monitoring network include:

  • Characterize baseline ambient sound and sound/noise during all phases of development, leveraging the regional passive acoustic monitoring network.

  • Expand passive acoustic monitoring outside of wind energy areas, especially along the shelf break, including using gliders and real-time systems.

  • To the extent practicable, ensure alignment between archival and real-time deployments. Ensure that whale detection from real-time systems can be folded into analyses and data products that also leverage archival detection.

  • Couple aerial/visual monitoring with acoustic monitoring to address the issues above and better link the resulting observational datasets.

  • Co-deploy acoustic telemetry receivers to build out a telemetry receiver network, and other sensors as practicable.

The Subcommittee recommends the following regional-scale data collection efforts:

  • (Cross taxa) Leveraging BOEM and NOAA’s ongoing efforts, ensure that the required Protected Species Observer data collected by offshore wind companies during construction and operations via Pile Driving Monitoring Plans and Vessel Strike Avoidance Plans (and any other mitigation plans) follows a consistent reporting approach and is eventually submitted to a Master Protected Species Observer Sightings Database for use in marine mammal analyses and research.

  • Ensure that other marine mammal and environmental data collection required by the agencies during installation (e.g., sound fields, visual monitoring, PAM, thermal/infrared camera systems) are collected using consistent methods such that data can be used in other analyses and research including broader scale analyses of potential impacts across many projects.

  • (Cross-taxa) Continue regional scale protected species and habitat data collection activities through the Atlantic Marine Assessment Program for Protected Species (AMAPPS), Ecosystem Monitoring Survey; NOAA Fisheries North Atlantic Right Whale Aerial Surveys, NOAA Fisheries Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Aerial Surveys, NOAA Fisheries Marine Mammal, Sea Turtle, and Seabird ship-based surveys; NOAA Fisheries Seal aerial abundance surveys. Advance the NOAA Fisheries and BOEM Survey Mitigation Strategy (Hare et al., 2022) to ensure that site-specific and regional scale studies are put in the context of population trends and ecosystem conditions.

  • (Cross-taxa) Coordinate regular high-definition aerial surveys that cover multiple lease areas using the same tools and methods. This effort should leverage the considerable amount of high-definition aerial photography data collected during site assessment by multiple offshore wind developers, and the Southern New England megafauna aerial surveys that have occurred consistently since 2011.

  • Collect marine mammal behavioral and health data through tagging and visual observations to determine how individuals interact with wind farm structures and whether changes to foraging, socializing, or reproduction are occurring.

  • In collaboration with NOAA Fisheries, continue and expand stranding data collection and analysis with respect to stranding and mortality data time series analysis for the U.S. Atlantic Ocean.

  • Monitor entanglement with subsea structure of floating offshore wind structures and monitor secondary entanglement where derelict fishing gear/marine debris may attach to subsurface offshore wind structures.

  • Coordinate with the Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal and Ocean Observing Systems (NERACOOS), Mid-Atlantic Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (MARACOOS), and Southeastern Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA) to advance oceanographic and biological data collection and use in marine mammal research.

  • Leverage existing ocean observing platforms or add new ocean observing assets for marine mammal monitoring.

  • Work with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee to ensure that key oceanographic and habitat data are collected and available as data products for use in marine mammal studies and as model covariates.

  • Work with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee to determine whether offshore wind structures alter hydrodynamics, stratification, and mixing, and/or prey distribution and abundance.

  • Continue to collect data across the region that allows analysis and synthesis of prey fields. Develop a coordinated regional scale zooplankton monitoring and mapping effort that builds off of and links existing surveys and studies including EcoMon, Continuous Plankton Recorder, the Gulf of Maine MBON, BOEM-funded Zooplankton Ecology study, Canadian AZMP, Center for Coastal Studies, Northeast U.S. Shelf LTER, and projects conducted by Stony Brook University and Rutgers University to establish a broader ecosystem observing system, synthesize patterns, and identify trends and linkages across trophic levels.

There is a need to advance technologies that improve marine mammal detection during all phases of offshore wind development, and to ensure that the performance of new technologies is evaluated consistently (see Technology chapter recommendations): Chapter 10

  • Develop, evaluate performance, and apply existing and emerging technologies that enhance marine mammal detection, including thermal cameras, infrared cameras, passive acoustics systems, and systems that integrate multiple methods for use during construction and operational monitoring and mitigation. Test “smart” mitigation methods triggered by marine mammal presence as determined by these systems.

  • Advance quieting technologies meant to mitigate construction noise (pile driving, vessel traffic) and operational noise (vessel traffic, operational vibratory sound).

  • Develop and deploy safe long-duration satellite tagging telemetry technology for tracking high-resolution movements of marine mammals in and around offshore wind structures.

  • Improve analysis of monitoring data through artificial intelligence, automated acoustic, and image processing, and near real-time data availability.

  • (Cross taxa) Develop and test eDNA assays/surveys/sampling regimes to understand efficacy of use developing indices of occurrence/abundance, including testing the effect of carcasses in the environment on eDNA detection.

View ongoing and planned data collection activities for marine mammals in each subregion of the RWSC study area in the RWSC Offshore Wind and Wildlife Research Database. Based on those activities, plans for new data collection should consider the following:

The Gulf of Maine has long represented important feeding grounds for baleen whales from late fall to early spring. A resident population of Harbor porpoise is present in the coastal/nearshore areas of the Gulf of Maine from July to September. Almost all of the Gulf of Maine subregion is critical habitat (Northeastern U.S. foraging area) for North Atlantic right whales. Given that offshore wind development areas are still being identified in this subregion, baseline data collection should seek to characterize fine scale spatial and temporal habitat use. Studies of impacts specific to floating offshore wind (e.g., secondary entanglement), including modeling, should be coordinated through the Subcommittee. Cape Cod Bay, as a historical whale aggregation location, could serve as a sentinel site or control site to monitor potential population-level impacts to whales.

In Southern New England, known whale foraging hotspots (e.g., Nantucket Shoals) should be monitored using multiple methods to understand potential changes in behavior and habitat use. Studies of hydrodynamics and physical oceanography at the turbine- and wind farm-scales should seek to disentangle climate change drivers from offshore wind development and understand any changes that may impact whale prey (ACP, 2023).

Whale and dolphin sightings in the NY/NJ Bight have increased recently and includes increases in juvenile humpback whales in coastal waters, likely due to an increase in their menhaden prey. These whales may be particularly vulnerable to vessel strike due to their behavior and high density and speed of vessels in nearshore waters of this region (Stepanuk et al., 2021). Studies of whale-prey relationships and potential displacement from offshore wind areas in this region should be tailored to this context and capture rapidly changing ecosystem conditions and existing human uses in this area.

The U.S. Central Atlantic includes small resident populations of bottlenose dolphins, and large whales occur here and in the U.S. Southeast Atlantic at relatively lower densities than the other subregions. Data collection strategies and studies should be designed with the lower expected densities in mind. Both regions are important migratory routes, and the U.S. Southeast Atlantic contains critical habitat for North Atlantic right whale calving. Pregnant and nursing North Atlantic right whales and their calves are particularly vulnerable to vessel strikes in the Southeast U.S. from November to April annually because of the shallow bathymetry, the whales’ tendency to float at or just below the surface, and their long residency times in Southeast U.S. waters (approximately 2 months) (Cusano et al., 2019; Gowan and Ortega-Ortiz, 2014; Krzystan AM et al., 2018). Calving females and their calves may also be at greater risk of exposure to acoustic impacts because of their long residency times (Krzystan AM et al., 2018). More information is needed about the ways that reproductively active female right whales respond (or do not respond) to physical structures, noise, and vessels in their environment before wind projects are implemented in the Southeast right whale calving habitat. Characterizations of marine mammal distribution, abundance, and movement should continue in these subregions using multiple methods as offshore wind planning and development advances.

E.3.2 Data Analysis

Data analyses should inform where new data collection is needed, characterize oceanographic and habitat drivers of marine mammal distribution, abundance, and behavior, seek to assess whether offshore wind is causing any observed changes, and evaluate the efficacy of monitoring and mitigation strategies. The Subcommittee is especially interested in studies that seek to distinguish between climate change-driven shifts in marine mammal distribution, abundance, and behavior and changes that may be driven by offshore wind construction and operation. Related changes of interest include:

  • Whether construction activities displace or attract marine mammals

  • Whether offshore wind structures displace or attract marine mammals

  • Whether marine mammal feeding is altered due to changes to hydrodynamics or prey distribution/abundances caused by offshore wind structures

Individuals and entities should consult with the Marine Mammal Subcommittee prior to conducting analyses of marine mammal data with respect to offshore wind to ensure that the study leverages all of the available data and contributes to addressing the key recommendations described below to the extent possible.

In particular, researchers are strongly encouraged to leverage extensive existing and long-term data sources. These include but are not limited to AMAPPS, NOAA Fisheries North Atlantic Right Whale Aerial Surveys, Southern New England Aerial Megafauna Surveys, long-term/archival PAM, as well as shorter-duration observational studies (aerial, boat-based, tagging) as foundational elements of any analysis.

The following types of analyses are recommended:

  • Conduct a synthetic baseline assessment of marine mammals over the past several decades to characterize pre-development levels of spatial and temporal variability in marine mammal distribution and abundance patterns, from which to measure and assess any potential changes after the onset of offshore wind construction and regional-scale operation activities. Integrate density modeling and/or visual survey data, passive acoustic monitoring data, tagging data, oceanography/habitat data, and climate data to characterize pre-development levels of spatial and temporal variability in marine mammal distribution and abundance patterns.

  • Continue to update and improve marine mammal density models. Use outputs to understand drivers of marine mammal distribution and movement and to assess/detect change, displacement, and/or potential impacts. Periodically evaluate model performance and use validation and evaluation results to continually inform and advance model/framework development and applications.

    • Integrate the latest observational and environmental data every 2-3 years.

    • Integrate data from multiple additional methods (strandings, digital aerial surveys, passive acoustic data, tagging) and covariates (oceanographic and prey distribution). Apply results to inform research designs, determine baseline abundance/distribution estimates, best practices, etc.

    • Consider how to structure future model “eras” to reflect offshore wind pre-construction and construction/operation.

    • The modeling framework should be scalable to individual projects and the whole region such that individual project-specific outputs could be pooled into regional-scale versions of the model.

  • Repeat a power analysis to optimize the design of the long-term archival passive acoustic monitoring network every 3-5 years. Ensure that new monitoring assets and analysis results are accounted for and that existing or new hypotheses and questions can be addressed by the regional network.

  • Inform and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies meant to minimize impacts resulting from increases in vessel traffic (i.e., noise, collision, displacement) from construction and maintenance of offshore wind projects.

    • Develop or update existing vessel and marine mammal co-occurrence models with information from the offshore wind industry regarding vessel types and numbers. Validate models with AIS and effort-corrected whale sightings data.

    • Conduct studies to assess the effectiveness of mitigation strategies such as speed restrictions, establishment of traffic corridors, etc.

  • Model and assess entanglement risks associated with floating offshore wind.

  • Build off Project WOW and apply lessons learned to studies in and around other lease areas outside Southern New England and NY/NJ Bight. Use Project WOW Frameworks to identify stressors, species, and geographic areas to conduct assessments of displacement, attraction, or other changes to wildlife abundance, distribution, behavior, and/or health.

  • Integrate multiple types of data (e.g., acoustic, visual, stable isotopes, bycatch estimates, vessel trip reports) to understand potential changes in marine mammal feeding behaviors.

  • Determine whether prey distribution, abundance and/or behavior is altered due to hydrodynamic changes caused by offshore wind structures and from EMF/cables (heat and electromagnetic field).

  • Scope studies of EMF and marine mammals. Include studies of whether animals can detect EMF, what the sensing capabilities are, and over what distance.

E.3.3 Data Management

Understanding marine mammal movement and behavior near offshore wind developments will require close coordination among researchers, state and federal agencies, and industry.  The Marine Mammal Subcommittee will work with individuals and entities who conduct marine mammals and offshore wind monitoring and research to ensure that data are collected and stored in consistent formats that allow comparisons and pooling across individual projects in the RWSC study area.  This standardization is intended to support regional-scale assessments and the development and maintenance of regional data products and tools (e.g., marine mammal density models).

To support these efforts, the Marine Mammal Subcommittee recommends: 

  • Maintenance of an up-to-date resource list of recommended repositories, data and metadata standards, guidance, and protocols for use by all data collectors.  The current recommended resources are detailed in the table below. 

  • Development of standard language for inclusion in requests for proposals and funding agreements to encourage or require the use of recommended resources. 

  • Establishment of data sharing frameworks to appropriately manage access to sensitive industry-collected datasets necessary for research (e.g., acoustic data, Protected Species Observer data).

  • Collaboratively establish timelines for marine mammal detection data upload and dissemination, especially through public platforms and apps, e.g., WhaleAlert, WhaleMap.

The following table lists the repositories and standards that are recommended for use in marine mammal data collection and identifies data types for which no or limited data management capacity (i.e., standard repositories and guidance) currently exists.

Table 2. The Recommended repositories and standards and data types for which no or limited data management capacity currently exists.

Method(s) and data type(s) Repository Existing Standards
Raw passive acoustic data and passive acoustic data products (ambient noise metrics, species detections)

NOAA NCEI Passive Acoustic Data Archive

NOAA Passive Acoustics Reporting System
Observational surveys; line-transect data; telemetry data; acoustic monitoring; photo identification; oceanographic data products; model outputs OBIS-SEAMAP(Ocean Biogeographic Information System – Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations) OBIS-SEAMAP minimum data fields and acceptable formats, Duke Marine Geospatial Ecology Lab
Tagging data, oceanographic data Ocean Tracking Network (OTN) Data Centre

OTN Data Policy

OTN Data Templates
Satellite tagging data Animal Telemetry Network (ATN) Animal Telemetry Network DAC Data Management Policy Guidance: includes data submission requirements and instructions for submitting project-level metadata and deployment records via an app and by using Research Workspace.
Observational data; Photography North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium (NARWC) Use NARWSC data and metadata submission guidelines
Tissue samples National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (NIST maintains the NMMTB as part of the NIST Biorepository (formerly known as the Marine Environmental Specimen Bank))

National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank Sample Collection Form

National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank Request Form

National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank Specimen Access Policy
Marine mammal strandings and entanglements Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program

Report a stranded marine mammal

Report an entangled marine mammal
Calanus abundance observations Gulf of Maine MBON – NERACOOS ERDDAP Access is public via ERDDAP
Protected Species Observer (PSO) data Under development: NOAA and BOEM Master Protected Species Observer Sightings Database Under development
High-definition aerial imagery None; records of observations from photos go to OBIS-SEAMAP None – needs development
eDNA None – needs development None – needs development

E.3.4 Specific research recommendations and the associated data collection, data analysis, and data management activities that are needed

Research Topic and Recommendations Data collection Data analysis Data management
Improving mitigation of negative impacts that are likely to occur and/or are severe in magnitude
Inform and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies meant to minimize impacts from increases in vessel traffic (noise, collision) from construction and maintenance of offshore wind projects Conduct studies to assess the effectiveness of mitigation strategies such as speed restrictions, establishment of traffic corridors, etc. using vessel activity data, marine mammal models, real-time passive acoustic monitoring data

Develop or update existing vessel and marine mammal co-occurrence models with information from the offshore wind industry regarding vessel types and numbers. Validate models with AIS and effort-corrected whale sightings data.

Continue the existing collaboration between NOAA Fisheries, Project WOW, and the RWSC Marine Mammal Subcommittee to inform and be informed by the development and maintenance of research/risk frameworks as applied to marine mammals in the RWSC study area.

Leverage the Marine Cadastre and regional ocean data portals for vessel activity data.

Access passive acoustic data via NOAA NCEI Passive Acoustic Data Archive and NOAA Passive Acoustics Reporting System.
Advance technologies that improve marine mammal detection during construction and maintenance of offshore wind projects Develop, evaluate performance, and apply existing and emerging technologies that enhance marine mammal detection, including thermal cameras, infrared cameras, passive acoustics systems, and systems that integrate multiple methods for use during construction and operational monitoring and mitigation. Test “smart” mitigation methods triggered by marine mammal presence as determined by these systems.

Develop standards and guidance to provide for storage and access to data from thermal and infrared cameras.

Use RWSC Data Management and Storage Best Practices for Long-term and Archival Passive Acoustic Monitoring Data.
Advance quieting technologies meant to mitigate construction noise (piledriving, vessel traffic) and operational noise (vessel traffic, operational vibratory sound)

Characterize baseline ambient sound and sound/noise during all phases of development, using the regional passive acoustic monitoring network.

Develop new and advance existing technologies that can mitigate potential impacts including construction noise (e.g., bubble curtains), and operational noise.

 Use RWSC Data Management and Storage Best Practices for Long-term and Archival Passive Acoustic Monitoring Data.
Assess entanglement risks associated with floating offshore wind; monitor entanglement with subsea structure of floating offshore wind structures; monitor secondary entanglement where derelict fishing gear/marine debris may attach to subsurface offshore wind structures Opportunistic visual surveys, aerial visual, boat-based visual, tagging

Build off of existing simulation modeling funded by BOEM and other efforts to better understand entanglement risk.

Facilitate transfer of lessons learned from investigations of ropeless gear and reduction in right whale entanglements (e.g., in the Gulf of Maine) to the prevention and study of secondary entanglement related to floating offshore wind.

OBIS-SEAMAP

Animal Telemetry Network
Advance Population Consequences of Disturbance (PCoD) and Population Consequences of Multiple Stressors modeling Animal physiology, tagging, behavioral response studies during construction Continue to advance PCoD modeling and other frameworks, through Project WOW, projects funded by BOEM and others.

OBIS-SEAMAP

Animal Telemetry Network

Mitigate impacts on regional scientific surveys

The need to fully implement the NMFS and BOEM Survey Mitigation Strategy is critical to putting site and regional level studies in the context of population trends and ecosystem conditions.

Several NOAA Fisheries surveys provide critical data for marine mammals, including:

  • Ecosystem Monitoring Survey

  • North Atlantic Right Whale Aerial Surveys

  • Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Aerial Surveys

  • Marine Mammal, Sea Turtle, and Seabird ship-based surveys

  • Seal aerial abundance surveys
Detecting and quantifying changes to wildlife and habitats
Collect information on distribution, abundance, behavior, health, reproduction, and movement patterns of marine mammals and integrate new data types into species distribution models (e.g., PAM) and/or develop new models and data products

Continue regional scale protected species data collection through AMAPPS or similar programs and supplement AMAPPS data with methods that detect smaller species and juveniles.

In collaboration with the Massachusetts Habitat Working Group on Offshore Wind, NOAA, BOEM, and other partners, continue supporting the development of collaborative funding plans for Southern New England megafauna aerial surveys that have occurred consistently since 2011.

Advance, evaluate, and apply new technologies to better detect marine mammals where they occur, including using infrared cameras or laser detection (on ships or other platforms).

Explore and expand the use of satellite data, unmanned systems (gliders or autonomous underwater vehicles) and emerging technologies (e.g., eDNA) for marine mammal distribution and habitat use.

Develop and deploy safe long duration satellite tagging telemetry technology for tracking high-resolution movements of marine mammals in and around offshore wind structures.

Collect marine mammal behavioral and health data through tagging and visual observations to determine how individuals interact with wind farm structures and whether changes to foraging, socializing, or reproduction are occurring.

Continue to update marine mammal density models with new observational and environmental covariate data every 2-3 years or as is practical. For North Atlantic right whale models, updates should be more frequent. Incorporate passive acoustic data and other data types as practical into future versions of cetacean density models so that model outputs reflect more types of observational effort.

Periodically validate and evaluate the performance of models and statistical frameworks. Use validation and evaluation results to continually inform and advance model/framework development and application.

Continue to update mark/recapture analyses for population and residency estimates and demographic profiles of resident populations.

Improve analysis of monitoring data through artificial intelligence, automated acoustic, and image processing, and near real-time data availability.

 Advance and/or adopt recommendations related to the use of aerial visual and aerial digital survey techniques for certain species, life history stages, or geographies.
Implement a regional long-term archival passive acoustic monitoring network in the U.S. Atlantic Ocean

Use the RWSC Marine Mammal Subcommittee as a forum to strategize and guide future deployments of passive acoustic recorders. With Regional IOOS Associations, leverage existing ocean observing platforms and assets.

Monitor ambient noise levels in the ocean for historic conditions, present day, and predicted future scenarios.

Expand passive acoustic monitoring outside of wind energy areas, especially along the shelf break, including through the use of gliders and real-time systems.

To the extent practicable, ensure alignment between archival and real-time deployments. Ensure that whale detections from real-time systems can be folded into analyses and data products that also leverage archival detections.

Incorporate collection of oceanographic data and prey fields into the regional-scale PAM network.

Improve estimates of acoustic detection rates and cue rates of baleen whales during non-construction conditions.

Improve dose-response curves by obtaining in-situ behavioral data at offshore wind construction sites on baleen whale responses to pile driving noise. This would require collecting a range of data types including PAM and visual observations (aerial or ship-based).

 Repeat a power analysis/optimization analysis every 3-5 years to ensure that new monitoring assets are accounted for in the optimal design and that existing or new hypotheses and questions can be addressed by the regional network.
Expand analysis and synthesis of rates of marine mammal strandings and mortality events in the U.S. Atlantic Ocean over time In collaboration with NOAA Fisheries, continue and expand stranding data collection. In collaboration with NOAA Fisheries, continue and expand strandings and mortality data time series analysis for the U.S. Atlantic Ocean.
Understanding the environmental context around changes to wildlife and habitats
Coordinate with the Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal and Ocean Observing Systems (NERACOOS), Mid-Atlantic Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (MARACOOS), and Southeastern Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA) to advance oceanographic and biological data collection and use in marine mammal research

Leverage existing ocean observing platforms or add new ocean observing assets for marine mammal monitoring.

Work with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee to ensure that key oceanographic and habitat data relevant to marine mammals studies and species distribution modeling are collected.

 Work with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee to determine whether offshore wind structures alter hydrodynamics, stratification, and mixing, and/or prey distribution and abundance. Work with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee to ensure that key oceanographic and habitat data are available as data products for use in marine mammal studies and as model covariates.
Develop a coordinated regional scale zooplankton (marine mammal prey) monitoring and mapping effort, building off existing programs and studies Continue to collect data across the region that allows analysis and synthesis of prey fields. Develop a coordinated regional scale zooplankton (marine mammal prey) monitoring and mapping effort that builds off of and links existing programs in coordination with NERACOOS, MARACOOS, SECOORA, and other existing surveys and studies (including EcoMon, Continuous Plankton Recorder, the Gulf of Maine MBON, BOEM-funded Zooplankton Ecology study, Canadian AZMP, Center for Coastal Studies, Northeast U.S. Shelf LTER, Zooplankton imaging glider, and projects conducted by Stony Brook University and Rutgers University). Establish a broader plankton ecosystem observing system, synthesize patterns, and identify trends and linkages across trophic levels. Work with NERACOOS, MARACOOS, SECOORA, and MBON to ensure consistent collection, storage, and broad access to plankton data.
Determining causality for observed changes to wildlife and habitats
Characterize pre-development levels of spatial and temporal variability in marine mammal distribution and abundance patterns Conduct a synthetic baseline assessment of marine mammals over the past several decades that integrates density modeling and/or visual survey data, passive acoustic monitoring data, tagging data, oceanography/habitat data, and climate data. Ensure resulting data products are made available via RWSC and regional data portals.
Determine whether construction activities displace or attract marine mammals Passive acoustic monitoring – archival and real-time, visual and digital aerial surveys, boat-based surveys, tagging, water quality and oceanography

Leverage extensive existing and long-term data sources including AMAPPS, NOAA Fisheries North Atlantic Right Whale Aerial Surveys, Southern New England Aerial Megafauna Surveys, long-term/archival PAM, as well as shorter-duration observational studies (aerial, boat-based, tagging) as foundational elements of any analysis.

Integrate multiple types of data (e.g., acoustic, visual, stable isotopes, bycatch estimates, vessel trip reports) to understand potential changes in marine mammal feeding behaviors.

Determine whether prey distribution, abundance and/or behavior is altered due to hydrodynamic changes caused by offshore wind structures and from EMF/cables (heat and electromagnetic field).

Build off of Project WOW IRES and apply lessons learned to studies in and around other lease areas outside Southern New England and NY/NJ Bight.

Use Project WOW Frameworks to identify stressors, species, and geographic areas to conduct assessments of displacement, attraction, or other changes to wildlife abundance, distribution, behavior, and/or health.

Request data from:

NOAA NCEI Passive Acoustic Data Archive

NOAA Passive Acoustics Reporting System

Whale Alert

OBIS-SEAMAP

Ocean Tracking Network

Animal Telemetry Network

North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium

National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank

Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program

Master Protected Species Observer Sightings Database

Ensure resulting data products are made available through RWSC and regional data portals.
Determine whether offshore wind structures displace or attract marine mammals
Determine whether marine mammal feeding is altered due to changes to hydrodynamics or prey distribution/abundances caused by offshore wind structures
Distinguish between climate change-driven shifts in marine mammal distribution, abundance, and behavior and changes that may be driven by offshore wind construction and operation
Study how species detect/receive EMF, whether they respond to EMF (from both AC and DC cables) with changes in distributions or behavior, and whether those responses vary with factors such as EMF strength, cable burial depth, and floating/fixed technology
Enhancing data sharing and access
Continue to maintain the inventory of all ongoing data collection and research projects for marine mammals and offshore wind to encourage a coordinated approach to regional-scale analysis and planning future work Develop data products that reflect the results of data collection and research activities throughout the RWSC study area. Encourage or require projects to include funding for data product development, hosting, and long-term maintenance/updates, and access in their budgets. Data should be stored in recommended repositories and essential metadata should be shared with RWSC to promote access.
Coordinate data collection and synthesis of existing data efforts at a regional scale including baseline data, population monitoring, and data collected at individual OSW project sites (e.g., post-construction monitoring data) and facilitate pooling of data to obtain the statistical power to examine regional-scale effects

Continue to lead or participate in the ongoing and pending coordination and planning activities, using the RWSC Marine Mammal Subcommittee as a forum for information exchange and coordination among federal agencies, states, offshore wind industry, eNGOs, and the research community.

Coordinate and initiate collaborations with additional partners to facilitate data and information sharing, including the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program, regional stranding coordinators, the National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank, and others.
Make all data publicly available, including data collected for Environmental Impact Statements and post-construction monitoring to aid in the assessment of broad-scale questions, ecosystem-level research, and potential cumulative impacts Ensure that existing data repositories for marine mammal data have capacity to integrate and provide access to offshore wind and wildlife monitoring datasets as they are collected. Include a minimum budget threshold that must be allocated to data management and access in all project budgets (e.g., at least 10%; (Tanhua et al., 2019; Trice et al., 2021)).

  1. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/endangered-species-conservation/reducing-ship-strikes-north-atlantic-right-whales↩︎