Appendix J: Habitat & Ecosystem - Oceanography
This chapter describes ongoing data collection and research initiatives related to offshore wind and oceanographic/pelagic habitats and ecosystems funded by a variety of partners (states, federal agencies, industry). Each initiative is a near-term investment for either field or non-field activities related to understanding and mitigating the potential regional and subregional oceanographic effects of offshore wind energy development. The main types of potential oceanographic effects that are discussed include considerations related to the physical effects of structures, noise propagation, water quality, and biological linkages. For an always up-to-date list of active projects, visit the Offshore Wind & Wildlife Research Database. Given this ongoing work, the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee is making recommendations for additional research that is both aligned with existing efforts and that fills important gaps. Those recommendations are described in detail throughout each section of this chapter.
The scope of this chapter includes physical and biological oceanographic processes, hydrodynamics, and some atmospheric and meteorological processes. All of these processes relate to the species discussed in other chapters. Readers should expect to encounter multiple cross-references between chapters and topics as studies of oceanographic and meteorological processes are relevant to species as drivers of distribution, abundance, movement, and behavior, prey availability.
Data collection and study of sessile, attached, and epiphytic flora and fauna (including non-native and invasive species) are discussed in the Habitat & Ecosystem - Seafloor chapter. It is likely that some of the tools and methods used to collect seafloor habitat data (ROVs, autonomous vehicles) will contain sensors/tools to characterize and sample oceanographic variables as well.
J.1 Background
A wealth of scientific information has been collected on the oceanography of U.S. Atlantic waters, setting the stage with a historical baseline for helping to understand future changes. At a high level, physical oceanographic processes are largely shaped by the Gulf Stream flowing north along the coast and the Labrador Current flowing south, with an abrupt transition occurring at Cape Hatteras where the Gulf Stream comes to within 30 km of shore (Townsend et al., 2006). The Labrador Current transports cold water southward where it meets the shelf waters of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream at Cape Hatteras (Blair et al., 2022). The Gulf Stream flowing from the south contributes to heat redistribution in the North Atlantic and also influences the shelf ecosystem, particularly through the formation of meanders and eddies. Beyond these two major current systems, shelf water and slope water are distinct water masses that also influence the region. Shelf water has origins on the continental shelf and includes inputs from the multiple river systems along the coast. Thus, shelf water is less dense than slope waters which consist of a deep, nutrient rich water mass that lies between the shelf and the major offshore currents.
Variability in regional atmospheric conditions impact sea surface properties (e.g., winds and temperature) and cause both short- and long-term changes in oceanographic processes along the Atlantic coast. Annual average wind speeds increase from the south and peak in New England and Gulf of Maine waters (Bodini et al., 2020; Musial et al., 2016). Winds fluctuate over multiple time scales including seasonally (with mid-latitudes generally higher in the summer), weekly (e.g., during synoptic-scale storms), daily (with higher winds at night), and hourly/sub-hourly (e.g., due to fluctuations in turbulence and gusts). At longer time scales, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) impacts the region and can be described in terms of an index value (NAOI) related to differences in sea level pressure, with patterns persisting across decades. The NAOI has been predominantly positive during the last several decades (NOAA Fisheries, 2021), associated with an increase in westerly winds, an increase in precipitation, and warmer water temperatures for the eastern United States. By contrast, a negative NAOI is associated with a decrease in westerly winds, decreased storminess, drier conditions, and cooler water temperatures in the region.
Primary productivity in the region is determined by a physically dynamic ecosystem with complex interactions among environmental factors that influence the abundance, community composition, spatial distribution, and productivity of the phytoplanktonic communities. These environmental factors include the sunlight, nutrients, water temperature, physical processes (i.e., vertical mixing, upwelling, currents, and tides), and the feeding activity of zooplankton and shellfish (Blair et al., 2022). Water mass characteristics and oceanographic features (e.g., circulation patterns and frontal zone positions) are particularly important factors influencing phytoplankton patterns (Lipsky, 2020; NOAA Fisheries, 2021). Seasonality greatly influences the dynamic ecosystem of the region, given that phytoplankton growth rates strongly correlate to temperature, light availability, and phytoplankton community size-structure (Marrec et al., 2021). Zooplankton graze on phytoplankton and are then prey for fish, crabs, whales, and other large organisms; biovolume (total volume of material caught in zooplankton nets) measurements have shown seasonal and interannual trends in the region (Blair et al., 2022).
J.1.1 Oceanographic processes in the Atlantic region
J.1.1.1 Historical and ongoing processes
From north to south, each of the five regions described in this Science Plan have distinct oceanographic conditions and features. An overview of the oceanographic features in each region is provided in the following paragraphs.
The Gulf of Maine is a continental shelf sea with deep basins (e.g., Georges and Jordan Basins) that also includes the shallow offshore areas of Nantucket Shoals, Georges and Browns Banks, and the Scotian Shelf (Townsend et al., 2015). The Gulf reaches a maximum depth of over 1,200 feet in the Georges Basin. Inside the basins of the Gulf, tidal mixing as well as the seasonal warming and cooling of slope water and Scotian Shelf water create a seasonal intermediate layer, resulting in a three-layered water column structure. The shelf break front plays a role in structuring water masses which influences most trophic levels. Buoyancy-driven flow propels surface circulation in the Gulf and results in a counterclockwise direction due to freshwater riverine inputs and higher density offshore waters. Notably, the Gulf has among the greatest tidal ranges in the world and associated swift tidal currents. This tidal mixing strongly influences nutrient delivery to the euphotic zone and overall biological productivity. With its shallow and well-mixed waters, Georges Bank is unique for its high primary productivity and high concentrations of chlorophyll a, supporting an extensive food web including high levels of fish production (Northeast Integrated Ecosystem Assessment).
Southern New England waters extend from Cape Cod to Montauk Point, New York and include features such as Nantucket Shoals, Martha’s Vineyard, Block Island, and Long Island Sound, and submarine canyons in deeper waters (Blair et al., 2022). In the northern part of the region, the Great South Channel acts as a passage that connects the Gulf of Maine and the southern New England shelf. Nantucket Shoals are a well-mixed, shallow region and are biologically productive due to the cold, nutrient rich water arriving from the Gulf of Maine (Townsend et al., 2006). South of Martha’s Vineyard is an expanse of continental shelf with a gradual slope and cross-shelf currents leading to the edge of the shelf, where several submarine canyons cut into the shelf. To the south, Rhode Island Sound demonstrates seasonality of thermal stratification in the spring and summer. By contrast, Block Island Sound is an area with strong tidal currents and density stratification year-round. The greater-shelf region experiences warm core rings that break off from the Gulf Stream and the shelf break front plays a role in structuring water masses which influences most trophic levels. The northern portion of the Mid Atlantic Cold pool extends into southern New England waters.
The Mid-Atlantic Bight encompasses the entire Mid-Atlantic region, including the two RWSC subregions of the NY/NJ Bight (at its northern end) and the U.S. central Atlantic (at its southern end). The Mid-Atlantic region is influenced by both cool waters of the Labrador Current from the north and warm waters of the Gulf Stream from the south, with shelf water generally flowing south toward Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (Townsend et al., 2006). The New York Bight is a triangular feature that runs from Montauk at the eastern point of Long Island, New York to Cape May, New Jersey. Within the New York Bight, circulation is highly sensitive to changes in wind (Blumberg and Galperin, 1990) and biological productivity is affected by riverine nutrient outputs and cross-shelf interactions (Townsend et al., 2006). More broadly across the Mid-Atlantic Bight, the mixing of slope and shelf waters, along with upwelling, increases nutrient availability and promotes productivity (Townsend et al., 2006). The Mid-Atlantic Bight Cold Pool is a characteristic of the region, where strong seasonal stratification promotes productivity among all levels of the food chain; it is a dynamic feature that provides crucial habitat in the northeast shelf, particularly as a thermal refuge for benthic species (Blair et al., 2022).
The U.S. southeastern Atlantic is connected by the Loop Current-Florida Current-Gulf Stream continuum and influenced by the tropical and sub-tropical oceanic, atmospheric, and ecosystem domains. The confluence of the tropical and sub-tropical domains influences a range of sub-to super-regional physical and biogeochemical phenomena (SECOORA, 2019). In this region, the shelf is relatively wide and shallow; the physical dynamics are dominated by interactions with the Gulf Stream and the overlying atmosphere. Water movement is dominated by tidal and synoptic scale atmospheric events, and Gulf Stream frontal waves. Within Long Bay, situated in NC and SC, and other coastal bays, buoyancy also plays an important role in inner shelf oceanographic dynamics. In these areas, river plumes deliver sediment, nutrients, and pollutants to coastal waters, as well as also providing chemical cues that affect recruitment of estuarine-dependent fishery species. The dominant sources of nutrients for shelf waters are the circulation patterns influenced by meanders and frontal eddies. River plumes may also influence rates of coastal acidification in nearshore waters.
J.1.1.2 Ongoing and future alterations due to climate change
Human-induced climate change is causing an increase in sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, and ocean acidification, and is changing circulation patterns (Blair et al., 2022). Over the last two decades, ocean temperatures in the northeast Atlantic Ocean have warmed faster than the global ocean on average, with the Gulf of Maine warming faster than 99% of the global ocean (Pershing et al., 2015). During this period, the Gulf Stream has moved northward, driving warmer, saltier water onto the northeast shelf, with a decrease in colder Labrador slope water entering the Gulf of Maine (“Mid-atlantic regional council on the ocean,” n.d.). Additionally, the size and position of the Mid-Atlantic Bight Cold Pool varies annually and is significantly smaller and less sustained during warmer years (“Mid-atlantic regional council on the ocean,” n.d.). Annual mean chlorophyll concentration trends across the northeast shelf and all subareas were steady from 1998 until 2012, at which point a downward trend persisted across the shelf through 2019 (Friedland et al., 2020). In the southeast region, the mean sea surface temperature between 2016 and 2021 was higher than 86% of the temperatures between 1985 and 2021; the average concentration levels of chlorophyll a between 2016 and 2021 were slightly lower than the long-term median of levels between 1998 and 2021.
J.1.2 Potential effects to oceanography with respect to offshore wind
The main types of potential oceanographic effects due to offshore wind energy development are summarized in this section. They include considerations related to the physical effects of structures, noise propagation, water quality, and biological linkages.
Wind energy structures can have potential physical effects both above and below the water surface. The two primary components of these physical effects include: (1) structures above the water extracting energy, with associated wake effects (ocean-atmospheric interactions), and (2) structures in the water affecting turbulence and vertical mixing (hydrodynamic interactions). The extraction of energy has the potential to affect air-sea exchange processes, and associated changes in wind speeds, wave energy, turbulence, and eddy formation (Blair et al., 2022). For example, wake lengths of more than tens of kilometers under stable atmospheric conditions have been observed, with maximum wind speed deficits of 40%, and enhanced turbulence (Platis et al., 2018). In the water, the presence of turbine foundations can create localized friction, block ocean hydrodynamics, change wave amplitudes, and increase turbulent kinetic energy (Berkel et al., 2020). Effects on hydrodynamics can cause lateral and vertical changes in the temperature and salinity profiles within the water column. These potential effects on water column mixing have implications for ocean stratification and the residence time of waters in a region. Consideration also needs to be given to the potential for energy extraction to affect upwelling, downwelling, and frontal zones, since these regions can aggregate prey and attract higher trophic level organisms.
Noise and vibration are generated by offshore wind turbines and associated operations, with variation in the amount and quality of noise generated throughout the lifecycle of a wind farm (SEER, 2022). For example, the installation of turbine foundations using monopiles is considered one of the noisiest aspects of wind farm construction due to pile driving activities, and opportunities exist to reduce the amount of noise and vibration produced during future offshore wind farm development (Green et al., 2023). Other wind farm related activities can also generate noise and vibration, including wind farm operations and support vessels for site assessment, as well as constructing, building and maintaining the wind turbines. The three main environmental factors that will affect undersea acoustic propagation include variability in pressure, temperature, and salinity, which produce changes in sound speed and consequently affect the characteristics of acoustic propagation (Lin et al., 2019). The effects of noise on marine mammals and sea turtles are discussed in separate chapters of this Science Plan. In addition to marine mammals and sea turtles, fish and invertebrate species can also be impacted by noise, including by particle motion (back-and-forth motion of the medium), sound pressure, and substrate vibration. The propagation or emission rates for these stressors are intrinsically dependent on the marine environmental conditions (Hogan et al., 2023).
The placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column. In terms of turbidity, the turbulence created around a turbine foundation can result in increased sediment erosion and suspended sediment concentrations in the water column (Berkel et al., 2020). As observed in satellite imagery, offshore turbine structures can increase near-surface suspended sediment concentrations in the form of turbid wakes (Vanhellemont and Ruddick, 2014). Suspended sediment concentrations can also affect light conditions with implications for phytoplankton growth in the water column. As well, any impacts of wind farms on hydrodynamics and mixing could also affect the vertical profiles of nutrient, oxygen, and chlorophyll concentrations within the water column, with implications for primary productivity and higher trophic levels (Blair et al., 2022).
In terms of linkages to biological effects, the introduction of new structures during offshore wind farm construction can alter the habitat and modify food webs as the turbines are colonized. Habitat can be temporarily or permanently altered directly beneath and in the vicinity of turbine foundations, depending on the foundation type, materials used, and sediment type (seer2022f?). Emplacement of structures, such as foundations, can alter habitat by introducing new hard surfaces into an environment of soft sediment, which are then rapidly colonized by epifaunal organisms. Through colonization, the structures can introduce a different community of organisms, which can cause changes in local primary production, alter the food web, change predator/prey relationships, and alter carbon flow to the benthos (Degraer et al., 2020). Depending on the changes, the shifts have been considered both an enhancement of the environment (e.g., supporting local biodiversity) and a detriment (e.g., altering the local ecological system). Offshore wind farms have been observed to attract certain fish and invertebrate species to the turbine structures; these potential “artificial reef” effects refer to the ability of the structures to mimic characteristics of a natural reef (Carey et al., 2020). Additionally, changes in flow patterns around wind farm foundations have been modeled to potentially affect larval transport pathways and settlement (Johnson et al., 2021).
J.1.3 Platforms, environmental variables, models, and species model covariates
The Subcommittee discussed the importance of meteorological and oceanographic data as input to/drivers of species models (e.g., distribution, density, movement models). A key recommendation is to ensure that sufficient oceanographic data are collected to support species distribution and habitat suitability models and that those data are made available in the form of standardized data products. Some of the data products might be simple spatial interpolations; others are more complex models that may be covered in the subsection below the table. Covariates included in this list have also been informed by multiple existing modeling efforts (Hogan et al., 2023; MDAT, 2017; Roberts et al., 2016).
The descriptions below are organized by variable, with notations related to potential platform(s), and whether or not the variable has been identified by the Subcommittee as a potentially important species model covariate. This list is not exhaustive and will likely change as technologies and model development advances.
| Variables | Potential platform(s) | Priority taxa |
| AIR | ||
| Cloud cover | Satellites and aircraft | Birds & bats |
| Surface wind speed and direction | Satellites and aircraft Ship-based sampling |
Birds & bats, Cetaceans |
| Wind speed profiles | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | |
| Wind wake | Satellites and aircraft | |
| Atmospheric pressure | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors |
Birds & bats |
| Humidity | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | |
| Irradiance, solar radiation | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | |
| Mass fluxes | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | |
| Precipitation | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | Birds & bats |
| WATER | ||
| Sea surface temperature | Satellites and aircraft Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Sea surface height | Satellites and aircraft | Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles |
| Surface waves | Hi-frequency radar | |
| Wave height | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors | |
| Surface currents | Hi-frequency radar Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors |
Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Ocean color (chlorophyll, dissolved organic matter, suspended particles) | Satellites and aircraft | Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Chlorophyll concentration | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Turbidity | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Birds & bats, Protected fish |
| Dissolved organic matter | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
|
| Suspended particles | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
|
| Light (PAR, in-situ illumination) | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
|
| Nutrients (e.g., ammonium, nitrate, phosphate) | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
|
| Conductivity/temperature/depth profiles | Ship-based sampling Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Bottom temperature | Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Salinity, density | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Alkalinity, pH | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Protected fish |
| Dissolved oxygen | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Protected fish |
| Dimethyl sulfide | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Marine mammals |
| Phytoplankton biomass | Ship-based sampling | Protected fish |
| Zooplankton biomass | Ship-based sampling | Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Primary productivity | Ship-based sampling | Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
| Acoustics (e.g., backscatter for prey density estimation, passive acoustic monitoring) | Ship-based sampling Buoys and bottom-mounted sensors Autonomous surface and underwater vehicles |
Protected fish |
| Upwelling | Satellites and aircraft | Birds & bats, Protected fish |
| Meso-scale fronts and eddies | Satellites and aircraft | Birds & bats, Marine mammals, Sea turtles, Protected fish |
The descriptions below are of modeling frameworks that produce outputs that could be used as species or habitat model covariates. This list is not exhaustive and will likely change as technologies and model development advances.
Wind and wake modeling: Marine atmospheric boundary layer (mesoscale, e.g., weather research and forecasting (WRF); microscale, e.g., large eddy simulations), wind resource, wake effects from turbines (including wake loss that affects the wind resource), turbulence dissipation rates, mesoscale modeling of wind farms (including wind farm layout effects).
Hydrodynamic and coupled modeling: Wave direction/height/period, gridded-ocean circulation (3D current fields, temperate, salinity, pressure), upwelling, downwelling, frontal zones, localized turbulence effects (via computational fluid dynamics modeling), coupled hydrodynamic-biogeochemical models (e.g., nutrients, phytoplankton).
Ecosystem modeling: Whole ecological system and food webs, from primary producers to higher trophic levels (e.g., zooplankton), and often including human components.
Biological productivity: Net primary production (mg C m-2 day-1) such as derived fromSeaWiFS and Aqua using the Vertically Generalized Production Model (VPGM); Zooplankton production (PkPP; g m-2 day-1) and biomass (PkPB; g m-2) and Epipelagic micronekton production (EpiMnkPP; g m-2 day-1) and biomass (EpiMnkPB; g m-2) such as derived from the SEAPODYM ocean model.
Particle tracking and agent-based modeling: Larval dispersal, sediment transport.
Soundscape and Sound propagation modeling: Soundscape prediction, sound source field, underwater soundscape (interaction with underwater variables), propagation loss.
J.2 Research Recommendations: Oceanography and offshore wind in U.S. Atlantic Waters
The following focal oceanography research topics were pulled from the Atlantic Offshore Wind Environmental Research Recommendations Database that was filtered on habitat, oceanographic, phytoplankton, and zooplankton considerations. Additional recommendations were identified from Hogan et al. (Hogan et al., 2023). These research topics were then aligned with RWSC research themes and science plan actions, with associated field or non-field methods and analysis that can be used to address each.
J.2.1 Improving mitigation of negative impacts that are likely to occur and/or are severe in magnitude
| Research topics and recommendations | Data collection | Data analysis | Data management |
| Evaluate approaches to mitigate impacts to oceanography, pelagic habitat, and biological productivity | Approaches to reduce wind and water column wake influences. Noise mitigation and abatement technologies (e.g., bubble curtains) on oceanography, pelagic habitat, and biological productivity. Measures/technologies meant to minimize sound propagation during construction. Entrainment associated with high voltage direct current cooling systems. |
J.2.2 Understanding the environmental context around changes to wildlife and habitats
| Research topics and recommendations | Data collection | Data analysis | Data management |
Baseline hydrodynamic and oceanographic processes (e.g., ocean stratification; seasonally dependent effects on the cold pool) Biomass, composition, and distribution of phytoplankton and associated primary production (including broad-scale primary productivity and distance, overlap of productivity from offshore wind projects, and food availability for filter feeders) |
Leverage, maintain awareness, and coordinate with existing data collection programs that characterize baseline hydrodynamic and oceanographic processes, including:
|
Leverage existing data collection programs and integrate new data collection to characterize baseline hydrodynamic and oceanographic processes Leverage existing modeling frameworks and outputs (e.g., FVCOM, Doppio ROMS, CNAPS). Identify sensitive pelagic habitats to inform wind farm design characteristics, siting, and future assessments. This might include mapping or modeling of significant oceanographic features and areas of biological productivity. Develop daily, monthly, and seasonal climatologies of oceanography, pelagic habitat, and biological productivity to inform species distribution modeling, marine spatial planning, and offshore wind project design (see key variables in the Appendix). Develop or adapt existing hydrodynamic modeling frameworks to study potential effects from introduction of offshore wind infrastructure. Ensure that the framework can be applied at the project area or lease scale and can be scaled up or aggregate results to examine broader scales. The framework must be flexible to incorporate relevant physical characteristics of each area of interest. Effects to the following parameters are of interest:
|
Wind Data Hub / Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e)– U.S. Department of Energy Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) Data File Standards Version 1.1 (March 2019) Upload data: https://a2e.energy.gov/upload Submit metadata: https://a2e.energy.gov/metadata NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Regional Data Assembly Centers (IOOS Regional DACs): There are three IOOS Regional DACs in the RWSC Study Area associated with each IOOS Regional Association - NERACOOS,MARACOOS, and SECOORA. Data and products are typically accessible via ERDDAP and THREDDS. The Regional DACs provide data assembly, quality control, discovery and access services for marine data collected by State, Local, Tribal governments, academia, and industry in each region. Inclusion of an observing asset in a Regional DAC is not limited to assets funded through IOOS RAs cooperative agreements or the federal government. Data contributed through Regional Associations will also be contributed to: |
Collect oceanographic (and for above-water species, meteorological) data simultaneously to wildlife observation data collection activities to provide context and understand potential drivers of wildlife distribution, abundance, behavior, movement, and health.
Collect meteorological, hydrographic, oceanographic, and productivity data in a consistent way from the fine- to regional scales to informs models (see Data Analysis) and produce a collection of standardized data products for priority species modeling covariates:
Advance technologies that facilitate widespread oceanographic and meteorological data collection, transmission, and data management during all phases of offshore wind development, and to ensure that the performance of new technologies is evaluated consistently (see Technology chapter recommendations).
|
Wind Data Hub / Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e)– U.S. Department of Energy Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) Data File Standards Version 1.1 (March 2019) Upload data: https://a2e.energy.gov/upload Submit metadata: https://a2e.energy.gov/metadata NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Regional Data Assembly Centers (IOOS Regional DACs): There are three IOOS Regional DACs in the RWSC Study Area associated with each IOOS Regional Association - NERACOOS, MARACOOS, and SECOORA. Data and products are typically accessible via ERDDAP and THREDDS. The Regional DACs provide data assembly, quality control, discovery and access services for marine data collected by State, Local, Tribal governments, academia, and industry in each region. Inclusion of an observing asset in a Regional DAC is not limited to assets funded through IOOS RAs cooperative agreements or the federal government. Data contributed through Regional Associations will also be contributed to: |
||
| Characterize sound propagation and changes to the ocean soundscape | Characterize ambient soundscapes before offshore wind development and throughout the lifecycle of offshore wind activities in support of predictive environmental modeling and trend analyses. Improve sound measuring technologies and sound propagation models to include very low frequencies (below 10 Hz). |
Coordinate with the Marine Mammal Subcommittee on soundscape characterization and sound propagation data collection and modeling, especially given the coordination around deployments and data processing associated with the regional long-term/archival passive acoustic monitoring network. | NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI. |
J.2.3 Determining causality for observed changes to wildlife and habitats
| Research topics and recommendations | Data collection | Data analysis | Data management |
| Characterize atmospheric effects associated with energy removal by wind turbines | Field observations are needed that can discern the physical effect of offshore wind farms in contrast to what are solely naturally caused processes that may have been impacted by other factors. Conduct studies of atmospheric response to wind farms using both simulations and field experiments, incorporating learnings from ongoing work in the Massachusetts-Rhode Island lease areas. Characterize wake effects, the effects on waves, currents, and other air-sea interactions. |
Test and validate the results of model-based studies related to offshore wind farms and atmospheric effects using real-world observations. Coordinate with the Bird & Bat Subcommittee to understand the implication of any observed atmospheric effects on bird and bat movement/migrations. |
Wind Data Hub / Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e)– U.S. Department of Energy Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) Data File Standards Version 1.1 (March 2019) Upload data: https://a2e.energy.gov/upload Submit metadata: https://a2e.energy.gov/metadata NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Regional Data Assembly Centers (IOOS Regional DACs): There are three IOOS Regional DACs in the RWSC Study Area associated with each IOOS Regional Association - NERACOOS, MARACOOS, and SECOORA. Data and products are typically accessible via ERDDAP and THREDDS. The Regional DACs provide data assembly, quality control, discovery and access services for marine data collected by State, Local, Tribal governments, academia, and industry in each region. Inclusion of an observing asset in a Regional DAC is not limited to assets funded through IOOS RAs cooperative agreements or the federal government. Data contributed through Regional Associations will also be contributed to: |
| Characterize effects of changes in hydrodynamics, water stratification and turbidity on marine communities and regional ecosystems across different spatiotemporal scales (particularly phytoplankton and zooplankton community structure, biomass and larval settlement success and recruitment) | As per the National Academies recommendations (NASEM, 2023), design experiments and conduct field studies to characterize effects of offshore wind development (turbine- to wind farm-scale) on hydrodynamics. | Conduct multivariate regional scale analyses of oceanographic, phytoplankton, and zooplankton observational data (e.g., community structure, biomass) at regular intervals (every 5 years, 10 years) after offshore wind development begins to characterize any changes. Design experiments (field, models) to examine relationships between offshore wind structure presence, temperature, stratification, and plankton distribution and biomass. Coordinate with other RWSC Subcommittees to characterize trophic implications of plankton trends. In collaboration with the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee – Seafloor experts and Responsible Offshore Science Alliance, conduct experiments to determine if changes in oceanographic systems due to the presence of offshore wind infrastructure affect benthic organism and/or fish larval settlement success. |
Wind Data Hub / Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e)– U.S. Department of Energy Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) Data File Standards Version 1.1 (March 2019) Upload data: https://a2e.energy.gov/upload Submit metadata: https://a2e.energy.gov/metadata NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Regional Data Assembly Centers (IOOS Regional DACs): There are three IOOS Regional DACs in the RWSC Study Area associated with each IOOS Regional Association - NERACOOS, MARACOOS, and SECOORA. Data and products are typically accessible via ERDDAP and THREDDS. The Regional DACs provide data assembly, quality control, discovery and access services for marine data collected by State, Local, Tribal governments, academia, and industry in each region. Inclusion of an observing asset in a Regional DAC is not limited to assets funded through IOOS RAs cooperative agreements or the federal government. Data contributed through Regional Associations will also be contributed to: |
J.2.4 Enhancing data sharing and access
| Research topics and recommendations | Data collection | Data analysis | Data management |
Coordinate data collection and synthesis of existing data efforts at a regional scale, including baseline data and data collected at individual OSW project sites (e.g., post-construction monitoring data) Make all data publicly available to aid in the assessment of broad-scale questions, ecosystem-level research, and potential cumulative impacts |
Maintain of an up-to-date resource list of recommended repositories, data and metadata standards, guidance, and protocols for use by all data collectors. | ||
| Develop of recommendations for managing, storing, accessing, and eventually compiling archived (i.e., not real-time) oceanographic and meteorological observations recorded by wildlife and habitat researchers (and others) that may not be appropriately submitted to any of the repositories below due to dataset size or other considerations (e.g., bottom temperature readings recorded during fall/spring bottom trawl surveys). | |||
| Develop of standard language for inclusion in requests for proposals and funding agreements to encourage or require the use of recommended repositories and data standards. | |||
| Establish data sharing workflows, including formal agreements if necessary, to appropriately manage access to sensitive industry-collected datasets necessary for research (e.g., meteorological and oceanographic data collected on wind turbine generators and substations). |
J.3 Oceanographic Data Collection & Analysis in U.S. Atlantic Waters
J.3.1 Ongoing Oceanographic Data Collection and Analysis
Many entities collect and manage physical and biological oceanographic and meteorological data in U.S. waters. These data and derived data products (e.g., hindcast, nowcast, and forecast model outputs) are produced and used by agencies and private entities for applications such as weather forecasting and maritime safety, in addition to research uses. One program within NOAA is the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), a national-regional partnership that coordinates the contributions of Federally owned observing and modeling systems and develops and integrates non-federal observing and modeling capacity into the system in partnership with IOOS regions. The IOOS Regional Associations (RAs) in the RWSC study area are the Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA), the Mid-Atlantic Regional Association Coastal Ocean Observing System (MARACOOS), and the Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (NERACOOS). The Directors of each IOOS RA are members of the Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee, and IOOS RA staff also participate in each of the other RWSC Subcommittees. Each IOOS RA has different areas of focus with respect to data collection, synthesis, and management based on regional needs and partnerships. The IOOS RAs also coordinate coastal acidification networks along the Atlantic coast (SOCAN, MACAN, NECAN) whose activities should be leveraged with respect to understanding any biogeochemical effects resulting from construction and operation of offshore wind projects. Relevant IOOS RA biological data coordination is captured in each taxa-focused Science Plan chapter. IOOS RAs will coordinate through RWSC Subcommittees and with RWSC leadership on data collection, syntheses, and management with respect to offshore wind and wildlife studies. RWSC participants will also leverage the IOOS RAs extensive partnerships with the research community, and their educational and outreach activities.
Oceanographic and meteorological data collection is being collected within and around offshore wind leases given its inherent value to offshore wind developers to inform engineering and operational decisions. Several other entities are also funding, and/or advocating for oceanographic research and data collection activities with respect to offshore wind, in many cases due to the relevance to megafauna and their prey. Ongoing and planned activities are captured in the Offshore Wind & Wildlife Research Database.
J.3.2 Recommended Oceanographic Data Collection and Analysis
Entities that deploy platforms to collect oceanographic and meteorological data in and near offshore wind development sites should coordinate with the IOOS RAs to manage and disseminate those data, in real-time, as is feasible. Links to where those data can be accessed should be shared with the RWSC Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee as soon as possible. Several offshore wind developers have or are actively coordinating with the IOOS RAs to serve real-time oceanographic and meteorological data from platforms within their lease areas approved by BOEM as part of their Site Assessment Plans. Links below point to active or legacy data:
The Subcommittee recommends the following data collection activities :
Leverage, maintain awareness, and coordinate with existing data collection programs that characterize baseline hydrodynamic and oceanographic processes, including:
Long-term surveys, datasets, and syntheses that inform the NOAA Fisheries State of the Ecosystem Reports Northeast U.S. Shelf (updated annually) and the Northeast Integrated Ecosystem Assessment.
Datasets routinely collected by other agencies, including the National Weather Service, U.S. Navy, and others.
Collect oceanographic (and for above-water species, meteorological) data simultaneously to wildlife observation data collection activities to provide context and understand potential drivers of wildlife distribution, abundance, behavior, movement, and health.
Leverage existing IOOS RA infrastructure, including co-locating sensors.
A list of key oceanographic and meteorological variables, parameters, and platforms/methods is provided in the Appendix. Many of these variables are recognized by the Global Ocean Observing System as Essential Ocean Variables (EOV). The list also specifies whether the variable was identified by RWSC Subcommittees as a potentially useful covariate for species distribution modeling (Hogan et al., 2023; MDAT, 2017; Roberts et al., 2016).
Ensure that oceanographic/meteorological data collected during offshore wind and wildlife surveys/studies is compiled and made available for use in other analyses and research.
Collect meteorological, hydrographic, oceanographic, and productivity data in a consistent way from the fine- to regional scales to informs models (see Data Analysis) and produce a collection of standardized data products for priority species modeling covariates:
See the list of key variables, parameters, and platforms/methods in the Appendix.
Ensure that hydrodynamic and oceanographic processes are consistently measured across the RWSC study area.
Processes of interest for which data should be collected for modeling (training and validation) include:
Mid-Atlantic cold pool formation; stratification in general
Local turbulence production and induced mixing of different offshore wind foundation structures
Water quality and light penetration (e.g., chemical contamination associated with increased vessel traffic and presence of offshore wind structures, effects on suspended particulate matter and turbidity)
Atmospheric effects associated with energy removal by wind turbines (e.g., wake effects, the effects on waves, currents, and other air-sea interactions)
Wind farm-induced flow and atmospheric response to both momentum and heat fluxes
Ambient soundscapes and sound propagation data
Phytoplankton composition/biomass/abundance, primary productivity, and change over time; occurrence and persistence of harmful algal blooms
Zooplankton composition/biomass/abundance, secondary productivity, and change over time
Food availability for filter feeders and links to higher trophic levels
Where appropriate, using observing system simulation experiments (OSSEs) to determine optimal location of oceanographic observing at the region-wide scale.
Coordinate with the IOOS RAs and RWSC Subcommittees that may be deploying instrumentation via buoys to strategically co-locate sensors for oceanographic, meteorological, and habitat data.
Investing in region wide data collection with AUVs and remote sensing, including gliders, to supplement buoy data and collect more seamless broad scale coverage of physical oceanographic and biogeochemical data, and to record ambient noise.
Identify reliable reference/control sites, which may also be areas of high ecosystem productivity, for long-term monitoring and baseline data collection of multiple oceanographic variables in areas outside of wind lease areas.
Advance technologies that facilitate widespread oceanographic and meteorological data collection, transmission, and data management during all phases of offshore wind development, and to ensure that the performance of new technologies is evaluated consistently (see Technology chapter recommendations).
Develop, test, and validate novel platforms for collecting oceanographic and meteorological data
Leverage existing and improve real-time data transmission technologies from offshore platforms (cost, availability, reliability)
J.3.2.1 Gulf of Maine recommendations
Gaps in assessing the potential impacts of hydrodynamic and atmospheric alterations on physical and biological resources in the northeast have been identified and apply to the Gulf of Maine region (Blair et al., 2022). Determining oceanographic baselines and competing phenomena, such as the impacts of climate change, in addition to effects of offshore wind development is a research need. Characterizing hydrodynamic and atmospheric alterations due to offshore wind development is another broad research need related to future offshore wind development in the Gulf of Maine. Detecting the influence of scale and collecting information on cumulative impacts has emerged as a priority research topic in recent years. Monitoring of offshore wind projects sites in the Gulf of Maine will need to be conducted to increase understanding of marine ecology and oceanographic impacts. There are currently very few federal ocean observing buoys collecting data in the Gulf of Maine planning area, and the numbers of buoys in the planning area should be increased to understand baselines and effects from offshore wind development.
Following are some examples of more specific research that needs to be conducted to assess the potential oceanographic effects of future offshore wind buildout in the Gulf of Maine.
Measure the atmospheric effects associated with energy removal by future wind turbines in the region. This could be performed using instrumentation and modeling similar to the Wind Forecasting Improvement Project 3 (WFIP-3) which is being conducted in the MA/RI lease areas.
Establish a Lidar buoy program in the Gulf of Maine similar to programs in other areas along the U.S. Atlantic (e.g., MA, NJ, VA). The buoy(s) would measure wind profile, speed and direction; solar radiation; air temperature and relative humidity; barometric pressure; water velocity, salinity and temperature; wave spectrum.
Conduct glider-based ecological and oceanographic surveys along optimized transects in the Gulf of Maine. These surveys would be similar to what is currently being conducted in the New York Bight and could be an extension of glider surveys previously conducted in the Gulf of Maine as part of the project “Optimizing Ocean Acidification Observations for Model Parameterization in the Coupled Slope Water System of the U.S. Northeast Large Marine Ecosystem”. The glider surveys would capture the seasonal variability with simultaneous oceanographic and ecological sampling. The sensor suite on each glider would characterize the ecosystem’s physical structure (Temperature, Salinity, Density; CTD), tagged fish presence (Vemco receiver), and marine mammal presence (passive acoustics; DMON).
Expand monitoring of soundscapes in the Gulf of Maine to collect background data and to measure noise from potential offshore wind development in the region. There is a gap in sound data collection in the northern part and deeper waters of the Gulf of Maine (see https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/maps/passive-acoustic-data/).
Similar to the way RODEO has been performed in other regions, acquire real-time observations of the construction and initial operation of wind facilities to aid the evaluation of environmental effects of future facilities. Measurements should be made of: pile driving sound & operational sound (PAM), particle motion, cable layer, scour monitoring, seafloor disturbance and recovery, benthic habitat changed, epifouling, and fish.
Before any turbines are installed then after construction, collect field measurements to understand how the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column.
Improve and expand the forecasting capabilities of the Northeast Coastal Ocean Forecast System (NECOFS) with relevance to understanding the potential effects of offshore wind development on oceanographic processes in the Gulf of Maine.
Work together with NERACOOS to expand engagement with key end users in the offshore wind development and oceanographic communities to clearly identify how data and information can best be provided to suit their needs, refine the technical approach, and verify that user needs are met.
J.3.2.2 Southern New England Recommendations
Following are some examples of more specific research that needs to be conducted to assess the potential oceanographic effects of future offshore wind buildout in the Southern New England subregion.
Determine oceanographic baselines and competing phenomena, such as the impacts of climate change, in addition to effects of offshore wind development. With adjoining lease areas in the MA/RI area, it will be important to understand the oceanographic effects of multiple wind farms and their cumulative impacts. There are currently very few federal ocean observing buoys collecting data in the MA/RI lease areas, and the numbers of buoys in these areas should be increased to understand baselines and effects from offshore wind development.
The PIONEER array collected data from the inshore and shelf area to examine exchanges between the shelf and slope and the shelf ecosystem, as well as to provide broader insight into air-sea gas exchange, including carbon dioxide absorption. The array’s first deployment was off the coast of New England at the Continental Shelf/Slope interface, where it collected data from 2016 until it was recovered in September 2022; the array is now being moved to the southern Mid-Atlantic Bight (or RWSC Central Atlantic subregion). Given the time series of oceanographic data collected by the PIONEER array in New England waters, a new sampling program should be initiated to continue this time series and to expand measurements to those needed most for understanding potential effects of offshore wind development in New England waters.
During 2023-2026, post-construction wildlife surveys will be performed by BOEM outside of the MA WEA adjacent to Vineyard Wind 1. These surveys should include collection of oceanographic and habitat covariates to understand potential effects of windfarm development on above and below water processes.
Similar to how RODEO was performed at Block Island wind farm, perform similar types of monitoring during construction of other wind farms in the region to understand potential effects on oceanography, habitat, and colonization of foundations. Consideration should be given to monitoring of effects using different mitigation measures (such as for sound propagation) during construction to understand best approaches for minimizing environmental effects.
Collect field measurements to understand how the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column.
Based on methodology for WFIP-3, develop a guidance document for how similar types of field programs could be implemented in other regions. The program is unique in terms of implementing a comprehensive observational and modeling study of the coupled atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers in and around offshore wind farms and would be applicable to other subregions where wind farms are being developed.
J.3.2.3 New York/New Jersey Bight Recommendations
Following are some examples of more specific research that needs to be conducted to assess the potential oceanographic effects of future offshore wind buildout in the New York/New Jersey Bight subregion.
Determine oceanographic baselines and competing phenomena, such as the impacts of climate change, in addition to effects of offshore wind development. With adjoining lease areas, especially off the New Jersey coast, it will be important to understand the oceanographic effects of multiple wind farms and their cumulative impacts. There are currently very few federal ocean observing buoys collecting data in the New York/New Jersey Bight lease areas, and the numbers of buoys in these areas should be increased to understand baselines and effects from offshore wind development.
Similar to how RODEO was performed at Block Island wind farm, perform similar types of monitoring during construction of other wind farms in the region to understand potential effects on oceanography, habitat, and colonization of foundations. Consideration should be given to monitoring of effects using different mitigation measures (such as for sound propagation) during construction to understand best approaches for minimizing environmental effects.
Collect field measurements to understand how the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column.
Ensure coordination between RWSC and MARACOOS (which includes the NY/NJ Bight subregion) to spearhead data collection, archival, and sharing according to industry standards.
Work together with MARACOOS to expand engagement with key end users in the offshore wind development and oceanographic communities to clearly identify how data and information can best be provided to suit their needs, refine the technical approach, and verify that user needs are met.
J.3.3 U.S. Central Atlantic Recommendations
Following are some examples of more specific research that needs to be conducted to assess the potential oceanographic effects of future offshore wind buildout in the U.S. Central Atlantic subregion.
Determine oceanographic baselines and competing phenomena, such as the impacts of climate change, in addition to effects of offshore wind development. With multiple draft WEAs in the U.S. Central Atlantic, on both the shelf and in deeper waters, it will be important to understand the oceanographic effects of multiple wind farms and their cumulative impacts. There are currently very few federal ocean observing buoys collecting data in deeper waters of this subregion; the numbers of buoys should be increased to understand baselines and effects from offshore wind development.
Measure the atmospheric effects associated with energy removal by future wind turbines in the region. This could be performed using instrumentation and modeling similar to the Wind Forecasting Improvement Project 3 (WFIP-3) that is being conducted in the MA/RI lease areas.
Similar to the way RODEO has been performed, acquire real-time observations of the construction and initial operation of wind facilities to aid the evaluation of environmental effects of future facilities. Measurements should be made of: pile driving sound & operational sound (PAM), particle motion, cable layer, scour monitoring, seafloor disturbance and recovery, benthic habitat changed, epifouling, and fish.
Before any turbines are installed and after construction, collect field measurements to understand how the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column. Biogeochemical and biological sensors could be added to existing and future moorings and buoys.
Ensure coordination between RWSC and MARACOOS (which includes the U.S. Central Atlantic subregion) to spearhead data collection, archival, and sharing according to industry standards.
Work together with MARACOOS to expand engagement with key end users in the offshore wind development and oceanographic communities to clearly identify how data and information can best be provided to suit their needs, refine the technical approach, and verify that user needs are met.
J.3.4 U.S. Southeast Atlantic Recommendations
Following are some examples of more specific research that needs to be conducted to assess the potential oceanographic effects of future offshore wind buildout in the U.S. Southeast Atlantic subregion.
Determine oceanographic baselines and competing phenomena, such as the impacts of climate change, in addition to effects of offshore wind development. With currently only two, but adjoining, lease areas proposed in the northern area of the subregion, it will be important to understand the oceanographic effects of multiple wind farms and their cumulative impacts. There are currently very few federal ocean observing buoys collecting data in these lease areas, and the numbers of buoys in the whole U.S. Southeast Atlantic subregion should be increased to understand baselines and effects from offshore wind development. Especially, buoys and coastal stations are needed on the east coast of FL, within the 10-50 meter isobaths.
Measure the atmospheric effects associated with energy removal by future wind turbines in the region. This could be performed using instrumentation and modeling similar to the Wind Forecasting Improvement Project 3 (WFIP-3) that is being conducted in the MA/RI lease areas.
Add high frequency radar stations to fill coverage gaps identified in the subregion.
Establish a Lidar buoy program in the U.S. southeastern Atlantic similar to programs in other areas along the U.S. Atlantic (e.g., MA, NJ, VA). The buoy(s) would measure wind profile, speed and direction; solar radiation; air temperature and relative humidity; barometric pressure; water velocity, salinity and temperature; wave spectrum.
Expand monitoring of soundscapes in the U.S. Southeast Atlantic to collect background data and to measure noise from potential offshore wind development in the region. There is a gap in sound data collection in the shallower waters of the subregion (see https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/maps/passive-acoustic-data/). In addition, fishery independent research programs in the subregion (MARMAP and SEAMAP) could be leveraged to deploy hydrophones in areas where surveys occur.
Similar to the way RODEO has been performed in other regions, acquire real-time observations of the construction and initial operation of wind facilities to aid the evaluation of environmental effects of future facilities. Measurements should be made of: pile driving sound & operational sound (PAM), particle motion, cable layer, scour monitoring, seafloor disturbance and recovery, benthic habitat changed, epifouling, and fish.
Before any turbines are installed then after construction, collect field measurements to understand how the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column. Biogeochemical and biological sensors could be added to existing and future moorings and buoys.
Ensure coordination between RWSC and to spearhead data collection, archival, and sharing according to industry standards.
Work together with SECOORA to expand engagement with key end users in the offshore wind development and oceanographic communities to clearly identify how data and information can best be provided to suit their needs, refine the technical approach, and verify that user needs are met.
Identify historical data in the U.S. Southeast Atlantic subregion that needs to be preserved, as well as a pathway to collect, compile, and preserve historical data.
Develop high-resolution coupled physical-biogeochemical models incorporating as many marine environmental variables as relevant to offshore wind development and the various U.S. Southeast Atlantic ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs).
Leverage SECOORA’s education and outreach efforts to develop public engagement campaigns related to ocean observation technologies and offshore wind effects.
K Data Management
Understanding the full suite of oceanographic and meteorological processes near offshore wind developments will require close coordination among researchers, state and federal agencies, and industry.
The Habitat & Ecosystem Subcommittee recommends that consistent data collection methods are applied across studies of oceanographic and meteorological processes so that data can support regional-scale assessments and the development and maintenance of regional data products and tools (e.g., species distribution models).
To support these efforts, the Subcommittee recommends:
Maintenance of an up-to-date resource list of recommended repositories, data and metadata standards, guidance, and protocols for use by all data collectors. The current recommended resources are detailed in the table below.
Development of recommendations for managing, storing, accessing, and eventually compiling archived (i.e., not real-time) oceanographic and meteorological observations recorded by wildlife and habitat researchers (and others) that may not be appropriately submitted to any of the repositories below due to dataset size or other considerations (e.g., bottom temperature readings recorded during fall/spring bottom trawl surveys).
Development of standard language for inclusion in requests for proposals and funding agreements to encourage or require the use of recommended repositories and data standards.
Establishment of data sharing workflows, including formal agreements if necessary, to appropriately manage access to sensitive industry-collected datasets necessary for research (e.g., meteorological and oceanographic data collected on wind turbine generators and substations).
The following table lists the repositories and standards that are recommended for use in oceanographic and meteorological data collection.
Recommended repositories and standards for oceanography data collection.
| Method(s) and data type(s) | Repository | Existing Standards |
| Satellite remote sensing, water quality and oceanography, active acoustics and echosounders | NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) | Data collected without NOAA funding or support must go through a scientific appraisal process to be considered for the archive and is subject to the NESDIS non-NOAA data policy upon approval. ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). |
| Buoys, gliders, radar, and satellites: Surface currents and waves, sea surface temperature, wind speed, chlorophyll-a fluorescence, and climatologies, forecasts, hindcasts, and other models of oceanographic variables. | U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Regional Data Assembly Centers (IOOS Regional DACs): There are three IOOS Regional DACs in the RWSC Study Area associated with each IOOS Regional Association - NERACOOS, MARACOOS, and SECOORA. | See https://www.goosocean.org/eov for recommendations on methods, sensors/techniques, detection limits, accuracy/uncertainty estimates, and other data considerations for physical, biochemical, and biological variables (Essential Ocean Variables; EOV). ISO 19115 XML Metadata standard is required by NCEI and IOOS. Data and products are typically accessible via ERDDAP and THREDDS. The Regional DACs provide data assembly, quality control, discovery and access services for marine data collected by State, Local, Tribal governments, academia, and industry in each region. Inclusion of an observing asset in a Regional DAC is not limited to assets funded through IOOS RAs cooperative agreements or the federal government. Data contributed through Regional Associations will also be contributed to: |
| Meteorological and atmospheric data | Wind Data Hub / Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e)– U.S. Department of Energy | Atmosphere to Electrons (A2e) Data File Standards Version 1.1 (March 2019) Upload data: https://a2e.energy.gov/upload Submit metadata: https://a2e.energy.gov/metadata |
L Conclusion
This science plan chapter identifies near-term investments for both field and non-field activities related to understanding and mitigating the potential regional and subregional oceanographic effects of offshore wind energy development. The main types of potential oceanographic effects that are discussed include considerations related to the physical effects of structures, noise propagation, water quality, and biological linkages. In terms of physical effects of wind energy structures, the potential physical effects both above and below the water surface are considered, including related to structures above the water extracting energy and structures in the water affecting turbulence and vertical mixing. In coordination with the taxa-based RWSC subcommittees’ recommendations, this chapter considered the noise and vibration that is generated by offshore wind turbines and associated operations, and developed recommendations specifically related to sound propagation and modeling. With respect to water quality, recommendations were developed to address the placement of wind turbine structures and associated effects on hydrodynamics that can in turn affect biogeochemical and water quality characteristics of the water column. Finally, in terms of linkages to biological effects, consideration was given to the introduction of new structures during offshore wind farm construction that can alter the habitat and modify food webs, including as the turbines are colonized.
This chapter develops a total of ~40 research recommendations that cover the five RWSC research themes. The recommendations are based on the ~75 individual ongoing data collection and research initiatives related to offshore wind and oceanographic/pelagic habitats and ecosystems funded by a variety of partners (states, federal agencies, industry). The recommendations were also informed by relevant research topics previously identified from the literature in the Atlantic Offshore Wind Environmental Research Recommendations Database that was filtered on habitat, oceanographic, phytoplankton, and zooplankton considerations. The Subcommittee discussed the importance of meteorological and oceanographic data as input to/drivers of species models (e.g., distribution, density, movement models). A key recommendation of the Subcommittee is to ensure that sufficient oceanographic data are collected to support species models and that those data are made available in the form of standardized data products that could be used by existing and future species modeling efforts.